De jure segregation

Date and country of first publication

1988
United Kingdom

Definition

De jure segregation refers to segregation that is mandated by law or government policies. This type of segregation is typically enforced through laws that require certain groups to be separated based on their race, ethnicity, or other characteristics. De jure segregation was commonly practiced in the United States prior to the Civil Rights Movement, with laws such as the Jim Crow laws enforcing segregation between white and black individuals in public spaces, schools, and housing. These laws have since been overturned, but de facto segregation - segregation that occurs without government mandate - still persists in many areas.

Related segregation forms

De jure segregation is frequently discussed in the literature with the following segregation forms:

racial segregation, residential segregation, de facto segregation, school segregation, housing segregation, neighborhood segregation, economic segregation, academic segregation

This visualization is based on the study The Multidisciplinary Landscape of Segregation Research.

For the complete network of interrelated segregation forms, please refer to:

• First year of publication

• Louvain clusters

• Betweenness centrality

• Disciplines in which segregation forms first emerged (Scopus database).

Notes

At its current state, this definition has been generated by a Large Language Model (LLM) so far without review by an independent researcher or a member of the curating team of segregation experts that keep the Segregation Wiki online. While we strive for accuracy, we cannot guarantee its reliability, completeness and timeliness. Please use this content with caution and verify information as needed. Also, feel free to improve on the definition as you see fit, including the use of references and other informational resources. We value your input in enhancing the quality and accuracy of the definitions of segregation forms collectively offered in the Segregation Wiki ©.

De jure segregation appears in the following literature

Smith S.J. (1988). Political interpretations of "racial segregation' in Britain. Environment & Planning D: Society & Space, 6(4), 423-444. https://doi.org/10.1068/d060423

Mack K.W. (1999). Law, society, identity, and the making of the Jim Crow South: Travel and segregation on Tennessee railroads, 1875 1905. Law and Social Inquiry, 24(2), 377-409. Blackwell Publishing Inc..https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-4469.1999.tb00134.x

Walker V.S. (2). Valued segregated schools for African American children in the south, 1935 1969: A review of common themes and characteristics. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 253-285. American Educational Research Association.https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543070003253

Whitaker C. (2003). "Creative conflict": Lincoln and Eleanor Ragsdale, collaboration, and community activism in Phoenix, 1953 1965. Western Historical Quarterly, 34(2), 165-190. Western History Association.https://doi.org/10.2307/25047255

Lassiter M.D. (2004). The suburban origins of "color blind" conservatism: Middle class consciousness in the Charlotte busing crisis. Journal of Urban History, 30(4), 549-582. https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144204263812

Perry I. (2004). DISMANTLING THE HOUSE OF PLESSY: A PRIVATE LAW STUDY OF RACE IN CULTURAL AND LEGAL HISTORY WITH CONTEMPORARY RESONANCES. Studies in Law Politics and Society, 33(), 91-159. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1059-4337(04)33004-8

Mawdsley R.D. (2004). A legal history of Brown and a look to the future. Education and Urban Society, 36(3), 245-254. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124504264095

Russo C., Perkins B. (2004). An American perspective on equal educational opportunities. Perspectives in Education, 22(3), 29-36. https://doi.org/

Moore J.R. (2004). 50 years after brown: Segregation in the miami dade county public schools. Equity and Excellence in Education, 37(3), 289-301. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680490491029

Walker V.S. (2005). Organized resistance and black educators' quest for school equality, 1878 1938. Teachers College Record, 107(3), 355-388. Teachers College, Columbia University.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2005.00480.x

Fultz M. (2006). Black public libraries in the South in the era of de Jure segregation. Libraries and the Cultural Record, 41(3), 337-359. University of Texas Press.https://doi.org/10.1353/lac.2006.0042

Donahoo S. (2006). Derailing Desegregation: Legal efforts to end racial segregation in higher education before and after brown. Equity and Excellence in Education, 39(4), 291-301. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680600925253

Fultz M. (2007). "As is the teacher, so is the school": Future directions in the historiography of african American teachers. Rethinking the History of American Education, 73-102. Palgrave Macmillan.https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230610460_4

Fischbach J., Rhee W., Cacace R. (2008). Race at the pivot point: The future of race based policies to remedy de jure segregation after parents involved in community schools. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 43(2), 491-538. https://doi.org/

Menchaca M. (2008). Latinas/os and the Mestizo Racial Heritage of Mexican Americans. A Companion to Latina/o Studies, 311-324. Wiley Blackwell.https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405177603.ch28

Rivkin S. (2009). Desegregation, Academic Achievement and Earnings. International Encyclopedia of Education, Third Edition, 394-401. Elsevier.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-044894-7.01238-0

Cort M.A., Tull E.S., Gwebu K., Dlamini P., Pinkney E., Gramby E., Cuthbertson S., Daniels A., Luu S., Gwebu E.T. (2009). Education and internalized racism in socio political context: Zimbabwe and Swaziland. Social Science Journal, 46(4), 644-655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2009.08.001

Bennett Capers I. (2009). Policing, race, and place. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 44(1), 43-78. https://doi.org/

Norman B. (201). Neo segregation narratives: Jim Crow in post civil rights American literature. Neo-Segregation Narratives: Jim Crow in Post-Civil Rights American Literature, 1-214. University of Georgia Press.https://doi.org/

Clark W. (2011). Residential Segregation and Education. International Encyclopedia of Housing and Home, 100-104. Elsevier.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-047163-1.00035-7

Anderson M.W., Plaut V.C. (2012). Property law: Implicit bias and the resilience of spatial colorlines. Implicit Racial Bias Across the Law, 25-44. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511820595.003

Donato R., Hanson J.S. (2012). Legally white, socially "mexican": The politics of de jure and de facto school segregation in the American Southwest. Harvard Educational Review, 82(2), 202-225. Harvard University.https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.82.2.a562315u72355106

Swyngedouw E. (2013). The segregation of social interactions in the red line L train in chicago. Symbolic Interaction, 36(3), 293-313. University of California Press.https://doi.org/10.1002/symb.64

Palmer R.T., Wood J.L., Spencer D. (2013). Diverging Interests: Balancing Racial Diversity and Race Sensitive Policies Across State Higher Education Systems. Journal of Black Studies, 44(4), 406-425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934713488785

Hobbs Jr. G.J. (2013). Personal memoir: Judge William E. Doyle And governor Ralph L. Carr; peers for equal justice. Denver University Law Review, 90(5), 1121-1137. https://doi.org/

Tushnet M. (2013). A clerk's eye view of Keyes V. School District No. 1. Denver University Law Review, 90(5), 1139-1149. https://doi.org/

Yan J. (2013). Rousing the sleeping giant: Administrative enforcement of Title VI and new routes to equity in transit planning. California Law Review, 101(4), 1131-1184. https://doi.org/

Milner H.R., IV, Pearman F.A., III, McGee E.O. (2013). Critical race theory, interest convergence, and teacher education. Handbook of Critical Race Theory in Education, 339-354. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203155721

Ford D.Y. (2014). Segregation and the Underrepresentation of Blacks and Hispanics in Gifted Education: Social Inequality and Deficit Paradigms. Roeper Review, 36(3), 143-154. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/02783193.2014.919563

Ford D.Y. (2014). Underrepresentation of african american and hispanic students in gifted education: Impact of social inequality, elitism, and colorblindness. Advances in Special Education, 26(), 101-126. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1108/S0270-4013(2014)0000026005

Ford D.Y., King R.A., Jr. (2014). No blacks allowed: Segregated gifted education in the context of Brown v. Board of Education. Journal of Negro Education, 83(3), 300-310. Howard University.https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.83.3.0300

Osuji C. (2014). Divergence or Convergence in the U.S. and Brazil: Understanding Race Relations Through White Family Reactions to Black White Interracial Couples. Qualitative Sociology, 37(1), 93-115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-013-9268-2

Kofie N.F. (2015). Race, class, and the struggle for neighborhood in Washington, DC. Race, Class, and the Struggle for Neighborhood in Washington, DC, 1-239. Taylor and Francis Inc..https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315790534

Teeger C. (2015). “Both Sides of the Story”: History Education in Post Apartheid South Africa. American Sociological Review, 80(6), 1175-1200. American Sociological Association.https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122415613078

Franklin C. (2015). A more perfect union: Sex, race, and the VMI case. The Legacy of Ruth Bader Ginsburg, 88-101. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107477131.011

Johnson K.R. (2015). The beginning of the end: The immigration act of 1965 and the emergence of the modern U.S. Mexico Border State. The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965: Legislating a New America, 116-170. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316018828.005

Gelber S.M. (2016). Courtrooms and classrooms: A legal history of college access, 1860 1960. Courtrooms and Classrooms: A Legal History of College Access, 1860-1960, 1-248. Johns Hopkins University Press.https://doi.org/

Joseph N.M., Jordan-Taylor D. (2016). The value of a triangle: Mathematics education in industrial and classical schools in the segregated south. Journal of Negro Education, 85(4), 444-461. Howard University.https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.4.0444

Bell L.A., Funk M.S., Joshi K.Y., Valdivia M. (2016). Racism and white privilege. Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice, 133-181. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315775852-13

Boykin T.F., Palmer R.T. (2016). Examining the paradox between dismantling de jure segregation and affirmative action: Implications from contemporary higher education case law. Journal of Negro Education, 85(2), 114-128. Howard University.https://doi.org/10.7709/jnegroeducation.85.2.0114

Drake S. (2017). Academic segregation and the institutional success frame: unequal schooling and racial disparity in an integrated, affluent community. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 43(14), 2423-2439. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1315868

Johnson K.A. (2017). The antioppressionist thoughts and pedagogies of anna julia cooper and septima poinsette clark. Advances in Race and Ethnicity in Education, 6(), 49-69. Emerald Group Publishing Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1108/S2051-231720170000006003

Bickford-Smith V. (2017). A 'special tradition of multi racialism'? Segregation in Cape Town in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Class, Caste and Color: A Social and Economic History of the South African Western Cape, 47-62. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315081120

Giliomee H. (2017). Aspects of the rise of Afrikaner capital and Afrikaner nationalism in the western cape, 1870 1915. Class, Caste and Color: A Social and Economic History of the South African Western Cape, 63-80. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315081120

Kohn M. (2018). (De)segregation: The impact of De facto and de jure segregation on African American English in the New South. Language Variety in the New South: Contemporary Perspectives on Change and Variation, 223-240. University of North Carolina Press.https://doi.org/

Blitzman J.D. (2018). Gault's Promise Revisited: The Search For Due Process. Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 69(2), 49-77. National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges.https://doi.org/10.1111/jfcj.12112

Fedders B. (2018). Schooling at risk. Iowa Law Review, 103(3), 871-923. University of Iowa.https://doi.org/

Rothstein R. (2018). De facto segregation: A national myth. Facing Segregation: Housing Policy Solutions for a Stronger Society, 15-34. Oxford University Press.https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190862305.003.0002

Frampton T.W. (2018). The Jim Crow Jury. Vanderbilt Law Review, 71(5), 1593-1654. Vanderbilt Law Review.https://doi.org/

Weathersby C., Weathersby Y. (2019). Branch school buildings in the st. Louis public schools district: Tools to support the segregative neighborhood school policy of the St. Louis board of education. Journal of Urban History, 45(3), 483-499. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/0096144217712929:

Baker R.B. (2019). Finding the fat: The relative impact of budget fluctuations on African American schools. Explorations in Economic History, 72(), 93-113. Academic Press Inc..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2018.11.002

(2019). Desegregation and resegregation. Equality and Achievement in Education, 165-168. Taylor and Francis.https://doi.org/

Maxwell Hayter J. (202). "Many new barriers": democracy and resistance to the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Community Wealth Building and the Reconstruction of American Democracy: Can we Make American Democracy Work?, 182-197. Edward Elgar Publishing Ltd..https://doi.org/10.4337/9781839108136.00021

Houchen D.F. (202). An “Organized Body of Intelligent Agents,” Black Teacher Activism during De Jure Segregation: A Historical Case Study of The Florida State Teachers Association. Journal of Negro Education, 89(3), 267-281. Howard University.https://doi.org/

Clark J.B. (2021). FROM MASSIVE RESISTANCE TO QUIET EVASION: THE STRUGGLE FOR EDUCATIONAL EQUITY AND INTEGRATION IN VIRGINIA. Virginia Law Review, 107(5), 1115-1164. University of Virginia.https://doi.org/

Reza F. (2021). De facto segregation and the digital divide. Handbook of Research on Barriers for Teaching 21st-Century Competencies and the Impact of Digitalization, 145-160. IGI Global.https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-6967-2.ch008

Smith A., Kant S. (2021). Separate and Unequal: Harris Stowe State University and the Paradox of State Funding in Missouri. Journal of Negro Education, 90(2), 211-223. Howard University.https://doi.org/

Pearson S.J. (2022). Birth Registration and the Administration of White Supremacy. Modern American History, 5(2), 117-141. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/mah.2022.13

Hutton M. (2022). Bulawayo Breaks Ranks: Bureaucratic Battles over African Housing and Urban Citizenship in Late Colonial Zimbabwe, 1949 1977. Journal of Southern African Studies, 48(1), 159-181. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2022.2007646

Teresa B.F. (2022). The reemergence of land contracts in Chicago: Racialized class monopoly rent as a recursive objective in capitalist property markets. Geoforum, 130(), 35-45. Elsevier Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2022.02.004