Housing segregation

Date and country of first publication

1965
United States

Definition

Housing segregation refers to the practice of separating people based on their race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status in residential areas. It is a result of discriminatory practices and policies that have been historically implemented in many countries, including the United States, South Africa, and Brazil, among others.

In the United States, housing segregation has been primarily enforced through racial zoning laws, redlining, and discriminatory lending practices. These practices have led to the concentration of racial and ethnic minority groups in low-income neighborhoods with limited access to quality education, healthcare, and economic opportunities.

The consequences of housing segregation are far-reaching and have contributed to the perpetuation of social and economic inequality. Segregated neighborhoods tend to have higher rates of poverty, crime, and under-resourced schools. Furthermore, the lack of affordable housing options in predominantly white neighborhoods has limited opportunities for minorities to move into better areas and has perpetuated a cycle of poverty and inequality.

Efforts to address housing segregation include the enforcement of fair housing laws, desegregation initiatives, and affordable housing programs. Additionally, urban planning and zoning policies that promote mixed-income neighborhoods and inclusionary housing practices can help combat housing segregation.

While progress has been made in recent decades, housing segregation still persists in many areas. It remains a significant social issue that requires continued attention and action to create more equitable and inclusive communities.

Related segregation forms

Housing segregation is frequently discussed in the literature with the following segregation forms:

racial segregation, residential segregation, social segregation, school segregation, urban segregation, income segregation, ethnic segregation, racial residential segregation, central city segregation, metropolitan housing segregation, black self segregation, socioeconomic segregation, spontaneous segregation, spatial segregation, occupational segregation, suburban segregation

This visualization is based on the study The Multidisciplinary Landscape of Segregation Research.

For the complete network of interrelated segregation forms, please refer to:

• First year of publication

• Louvain clusters

• Betweenness centrality

• Disciplines in which segregation forms first emerged (Scopus database).

Notes

At its current state, this definition has been generated by a Large Language Model (LLM) so far without review by an independent researcher or a member of the curating team of segregation experts that keep the Segregation Wiki online. While we strive for accuracy, we cannot guarantee its reliability, completeness and timeliness. Please use this content with caution and verify information as needed. Also, feel free to improve on the definition as you see fit, including the use of references and other informational resources. We value your input in enhancing the quality and accuracy of the definitions of segregation forms collectively offered in the Segregation Wiki ©.

Housing segregation appears in the following literature

Miller L. (1965). The Protest Against Housing Segregation. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 357(1), 73-79. https://doi.org/10.1177/000271626535700108

Kain J.F. (1968). Housing segregation, negro employment, and metropolitan decentralization. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 82(2), 175-197. https://doi.org/10.2307/1885893

Mooney J.D. (1969). Housing segregation, negro employment and metropolitan decentralization: An alternative perspective. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 83(2), 299-311. https://doi.org/10.2307/1883085

Offner P., Saks D.H. (1971). A note on John Kain’s “housing segregation, negro employment and metropolitan decentralization”. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 85(1), 147-160. https://doi.org/10.2307/1881844

Kain J.F. (1974). Reply to Stanley masters’ comment on “housing segregation, Negro employment, and metropolitan decentralization”. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 88(3), 513-519. https://doi.org/10.2307/1881952

Masters S.H. (1974). A note on John Kain’s “housing segregation, Negro employment, and metropolitan decentralization”. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 88(3), 505-512. https://doi.org/10.2307/1881951

Freeman L.C., Sunshine M.H. (1976). Race and intra urban migration. Demography, 13(4), 571-575. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060511

Bullard R.D., Pierce O.L. (1979). Black housing patterns in a southern metropolis: Competition for housing in a shrinking market. Black Scholar, 11(2), 60-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/00064246.1979.11414073

Myers Jr S.L., Phillips K.E. (1979). Housing segregation and black employment: another look at the ghetto dispersal strategy( US).. American Economic Review, 69(2), 298-302. https://doi.org/

Winsberg M.D. (1979). Housing Segregation of a Predominantly Middle Class Population: Residential Patterns Developed by the Cuban Immigration Into Miami, 1950 74. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 38(4), 403-418. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1536-7150.1979.tb02846.x

McDonald J.F. (1981). The direct and indirect effects of housing segregation on employment opportunities for blacks. The Annals of Regional Science, 15(2), 27-38. Springer-Verlag.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01287437

FARLEy J.E. (1982). BLACK MALE UNEMPLOyMENT IN U.S. METROPOLITAN AREAS: THE ROLE OF BLACK CENTRAL CITy SEGREGATION AND JOB DECENTRALIZATION. Journal of Urban Affairs, 4(3), 19-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9906.1982.tb00062.x

Farley J.E. (1983). Metropolitan housing segregation in 1980: The St. Louis Case. Urban Affairs Review, 18(3), 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208168301800304

Farley J.E. (1983). Metropolitan housing segregation in 1980: The St. Louis Case. Urban Affairs Review, 18(3), 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208168301800304

Farley J.E. (1984). P* Segregation Indices: What Can They Tell Us about Housing Segregation in 1980?. Urban Studies, 21(3), 331-336. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420988420080591

Farley J.E. (1984). HOUSING SEGREGATION IN THE SCHOOL AGE POPULATION AND THE LINK BETWEEN HOUSING AND SCHOOL SEGREGATION: A ST. LOUIS CASE STUDY. Journal of Urban Affairs, 6(4), 65-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9906.1984.tb00458.x

Gottlieb H.N. (1984). The school effects of Chicago suburban housing segregation. Equity and Excellence in Education, 21(1-6), 105-109. https://doi.org/10.1080/0020486840210106

Bahr J., Gans P. (1985). Differences in migration behaviour of Germans and foreigners in selected cities of the Federal Republic of Germany.. Espace-Populations-Societes, 1985-1(), 201-214. https://doi.org/10.3406/espos.1985.1029

Farley J.E. (1986). Segregated city, segregated suburbs: To what extent are they products of black white socioeconomic differentials?. Urban Geography, 7(2), 164-171. https://doi.org/10.2747/0272-3638.7.2.164

Smith R.A. (1989). The Effects of local Fair Housing Ordinances on Housing Segregation: Their Impact Is Small, But It's an Important Positive Change Toward Integration. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 48(2), 219-230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1536-7150.1989.tb02119.x

Goering J.M., Coulibably M. (1989). Investigating Public Housing Segregation: Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Urban Affairs Review, 25(2), 265-297. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208168902500205

Danermark B., Jacobson T. (1989). Local housing policy and residential segregation. Scandinavian Housing and Planning Research, 6(4), 245-256. https://doi.org/10.1080/02815738908730206

Farley J.E. (1991). Black white housing segregation in the city of St. Louis: A 1988 Update. Urban Affairs Review, 26(3), 442-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208169102600307

Vogel J. (1992). Urban segregation in Sweden housing policy, housing markets, and the spacial distribution of households in metropolitan areas. Social Indicators Research, 27(2), 139-155. Kluwer Academic Publishers.https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00300558

Chandler M.O. (1992). Public Housing Desegregation: What Are the Options?. Housing Policy Debate, 3(2), 509-534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1992.9521102

Coulibaly M. (1993). Racial and Income Segregation in Low Income Housing: 1934 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, 25(3), 104-112. https://doi.org/10.1177/048661349302500313

Blanc M. (1993). Housing segregation and the poor. Housing Studies, 8(3), 207-214. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673039308720762

Goering J.M. (1993). Towards the Comparative Exploration of Public Housing Segregation in England and the United States1. Housing Studies, 8(4), 256-273. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673039308720767

Dieleman F.M. (1994). Social Rented Housing: Valuable Asset or Unsustainable Burden?. Urban Studies, 31(3), 447-463. https://doi.org/10.1080/00420989420080421

Farley J.E. (1995). Race still matters: The Minimal Role of Income and Housing Cost as Causes of Housing Segregation in St. Louis, 1990. Urban Affairs Review, 31(2), 244-254. https://doi.org/10.1177/107808749503100207

Farley J.E. (1995). Race still matters: The Minimal Role of Income and Housing Cost as Causes of Housing Segregation in St. Louis, 1990. Urban Affairs Review, 31(2), 244-254. https://doi.org/10.1177/107808749503100207

Baar K.K. (1996). The anti apartment movement in the U.S. and the role of land use regulations in creating housing segregation. Netherlands Journal of Housing and the Built Environment, 11(4), 359-379. Delft University Press.https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02497492

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Smith R.A. (1997). Patterns of racial and ethnic segregation in Florida's urban counties. Florida Geographer, 28(), 35-54. https://doi.org/

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Ihlanfeldt K.R., Scafidi B. (2002). Black self segregation as a cause of housing segregation: Evidence from the Multi City Study of Urban Inequality. Journal of Urban Economics, 51(2), 366-390. Academic Press Inc..https://doi.org/10.1006/juec.2001.2249

Schuck P.H. (2002). Judging remedies: Judicial approaches to housing segregation. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 37(2), 289-368. https://doi.org/

Gullberg A. (2002). Chapter 8. Housing segregation. International Journal of Social Welfare, 11(SUPPL.), S90-S100. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2397.11.s3.9

Crump J.R. (2003). Producing and enforcing the geography of hate: Race, housing segregation, and housing related hate crimes in the United States. Spaces of Hate: Geographies of Discrimination and Intolerance in the U.S.A., 227-244. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203952771

Popkin S.J., Galster G.C., Temkin K., Herbig C., Levy D.K., Richer E.K. (2003). Obstacles to Desegregating Public Housing: Lessons Learned from Implementing Eight Consent Decrees. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 22(2), 179-199. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.10112

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Saporito S. (2003). Private choices, public consequences: Magnet school choice and segregation by race and poverty. Social Problems, 50(2), 181-203. University of California Press.https://doi.org/10.1525/sp.2003.50.2.181

Glaeser E.L., Hanushek E.A., Quigley J.M. (2004). Opportunities, race, and urban location: The influence of John Kain. Journal of Urban Economics, 56(1), 70-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2004.03.002

Feagin J.R., Barnett B.M. (2004). Success and failure: How systemic racism trumped the Brown v. Board of Education decision. University of Illinois Law Review, 2004(5), 1099-1130. https://doi.org/

Ihlanfeldt K.R., Scafidi B. (2004). Whites' neighbourhood racial preferences and neighbourhood racial composition in the United States: Evidence from the multi city study of urban inequality. Housing Studies, 19(3), 325-359. https://doi.org/10.1080/0267303042000204278

Lands L.B. (2004). A Reprehensible and Unfriendly Act: Homeowners, Renters, and the Bid for Residential Segregation in Atlanta, 1900 1917. Journal of Planning History, 3(2), 83-115. https://doi.org/10.1177/1538513204264096

Bates T., Fasenfest D. (2005). Enforcement mechanisms discouraging black American presence in suburban Detroit. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29(4), 960-971. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00631.x

Farley J.E. (2005). Race, not class: Explaining racial housing segregation in the St. Louis metropolitan area, 2000. Sociological Focus, 38(2), 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2005.10571261

Lamb C.M. (2005). Housing segregation in Suburban America since 1960: Presidential and judicial politics. Housing Segregation in Suburban America since 1960: Presidential and Judicial Politics, 1-302. Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511614354

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Bar-El R. (2006). Inter regional labor market equilibrium: Another pattern of spatial mismatch. Annals of Regional Science, 40(2), 393-405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00168-006-0059-5

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