Income segregation

Date and country of first publication^[1]

1984
United States

Definition

Income segregation refers to the division of communities or neighborhoods based on income levels. This can manifest in various ways, such as gated communities for higher income households, or low-income housing projects that isolate lower-income individuals from the rest of the community. Income segregation can have negative consequences, such as limiting opportunities for social mobility and exacerbating income inequality. It can also lead to social isolation and perpetuate stereotypes and misconceptions about people of different income levels. Efforts to address income segregation may involve policies aimed at promoting mixed-income housing developments, improving access to affordable housing, and increasing economic opportunities for all residents.

Synonyms

The following terms are synonymous with:

individual level segregation.

References and literature addressing this segregation form under these synonymous terms can be found below.

Related segregation forms

Income segregation is frequently discussed in the literature with the following segregation forms:

residential income segregation,housing segregation,economic segregation,school district segregation,spatial income segregation,metropolitan segregation,urban income segregation,black segregation,metropolitan income segregation,school racial segregation

For the complete network of associated segregation forms, see:

clusters https://tinyurl.com/2d8wg5n3

year of publication https://tinyurl.com/2235lkhw

betweenness centrality https://tinyurl.com/223udk5r

disciplines where segregation forms first appeared https://tinyurl.com/244d8unz

References

Notes

↑ Date and country of first publication as informed by the Scopus database (December 2023).

At its current state, this definition has been generated by a Large Language Model (LLM) so far without review by an independent researcher or a member of the curating team of segregation experts that keep the Segregation Wiki online. While we strive for accuracy, we cannot guarantee its reliability, completeness and timeliness. Please use this content with caution and verify information as needed. Also, feel free to improve on the definition as you see fit, including the use of references and other informational resources. We value your input in enhancing the quality and accuracy of the definitions of segregation forms collectively offered in the Segregation Wiki ©.

Income segregation appears in the following literature

Stahura J.M. (1984). A research note on the metropolitan determinants of suburban persistence. Social Forces, 62(3), 767-774. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/62.3.767

Coulibaly M. (1993). Racial and Income Segregation in Low Income Housing: 1934 1992. Review of Radical Political Economics, 25(3), 104-112. https://doi.org/10.1177/048661349302500313

Massey D.S., Eggers M.L. (1993). The spatial concentration of affluence and poverty during the 1970s. Urban Affairs Review, 29(2), 299-315. https://doi.org/10.1177/004208169302900206

Abramson A.J., Tobin M.S., VanderGoot M.R. (1995). The Changing Geography of Metropolitan Opportunity: The Segregation of the Poor in U.S. Metropolitan Areas, 1970 to 1990. Housing Policy Debate, 6(1), 45-72. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.1995.9521181

Van Kempen R., Priemus H. (1999). Undivided cities in the Netherlands: Present situation and political rhetoric. Housing Studies, 14(5), 641-657. Carfax Publishing Company.https://doi.org/10.1080/02673039982650

Fong E., Shibuya K. (2). The spatial separation of the poor in Canadian cities. Demography, 37(4), 449-459. Duke University Press.https://doi.org/10.2307/2648071

Ross N.A., Nobrega K., Dunn J. (2001). Income segregation, income inequality and mortality in North American metropolitan areas. GeoJournal, 53(2), 117-124. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015720518936

Nechyba T. (2003). School finance, spatial income segregation, and the nature of communities. Journal of Urban Economics, 54(1), 61-88. Academic Press Inc..https://doi.org/10.1016/S0094-1190(03)00041-X

Pendall R., Carruthers J.I. (2003). Does density exacerbate income segregation? Evidence from U.S. Metropolitan Areas, 1980 to 2000. Housing Policy Debate, 14(4), 541-589. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2003.9521487

Fischer M.J. (2003). The relative importance of income and race in determining residential outcomes in U.S. urban areas, 1970 2000. Urban Affairs Review, 38(5), 669-696. https://doi.org/10.1177/1078087403038005003

Ross N.A., Houle C., Dunn J.R., Aye M. (2004). Dimensions and dynamics of residential segregation by income in urban Canada, 1991 1996. Canadian Geographer, 48(4), 433-445. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0008-3658.2004.00069.x

Pendall R. (2005). Does density exacerbate income segregation? Evidence from U.S. Metropolitan areas, 1980 1990. Desegregating The City: Ghettos, Enclaves, and Inequality, 175-199. State University of New York Press.https://doi.org/

Burgess S., Wilson D. (2005). Ethnic segregation in England's schools. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 30(1), 20-36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5661.2005.00149.x

Varady D.P. (2005). Desegregating the city: Ghettos, enclaves, and inequality. Desegregating the City: Ghettos, Enclaves, and Inequality, 1-310. State University of New York Press.https://doi.org/

Schmidheiny K. (2006). Income segregation from local income taxation when households differ in both preferences and incomes. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 36(2), 270-299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2005.10.003

Schmidheiny K. (2006). Income segregation and local progressive taxation: Empirical evidence from Switzerland. Journal of Public Economics, 90(3), 429-458. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2005.09.003

Hodler R., Schmidheiny K. (2006). How fiscal decentralization flattens progressive taxes. FinanzArchiv, 62(2), 281-304. https://doi.org/10.1628/001522106X120695

Reardon S.F., Yun J.T., Kurlaender M. (2006). Implications of income based school assignment policies for racial school segregation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 28(1), 49-75. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737028001049

Dawkins C.J. (2007). Space and the measurement of income segregation. Journal of Regional Science, 47(2), 255-272. Blackwell Publishing Inc..https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2007.00508.x

Galbraith J.K., Hale J.T. (2008). State income inequality and presidential election turnout and outcomes. Social Science Quarterly, 89(4), 887-901. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2008.00589.x

Oreopoulos P. (2008). Neighbourhood effects in Canada: A critique. Canadian Public Policy, 34(2), 237-258. https://doi.org/10.3138/cpp.34.2.237

Wood G., Berry M., Taylor E., Nygaard C. (2008). Community mix, affordable housing and metropolitan planning strategy in Melbourne. Built Environment, 34(3), 273-290. https://doi.org/10.2148/benv.34.3.273

Downes T. (2009). School Finance Reform. International Encyclopedia of Education, Third Edition, 216-221. Elsevier.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-044894-7.01242-2

Watson T. (2009). Inequality and the measurement of residential segregation by income in american neighborhoods. Review of Income and Wealth, 55(3), 820-844. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.2009.00346.x

Dawkins C.J. (2009). Exploring changes in the spatial pattern of income segregation during the 1990s. Research on Economic Inequality, 17(), 159-170. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1049-2585(2009)0000017012

Freeman L. (2009). Neighbourhood diversity, metropolitan segregation and gentrification: What are the links in the US?. Urban Studies, 46(10), 2079-2101. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042098009339426

Rothwell J.T., Massey D.S. (201). Density zoning and class segregation in U.S. metropolitan areas. Social Science Quarterly, 91(5), 1123-1143. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2010.00724.x

Wu J. (201). Economic fundamentals and urban suburban disparities. Journal of Regional Science, 50(2), 570-591. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2010.00665.x

Schaltegger C.A., Somogyi F., Sturm J.-E. (2011). Tax competition and income sorting: Evidence from the Zurich metropolitan area. European Journal of Political Economy, 27(3), 455-470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2011.01.004

Finney M.M., Goetzke F., Yoon M.J. (2011). Income sorting and the demand for clean air: Evidence from southern California. Land Economics, 87(1), 19-27. University of Wisconsin Press.https://doi.org/10.3368/le.87.1.19

Rey S.J., Folch D.C. (2011). Impact of spatial effects on income segregation indices. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 35(6), 431-441. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2011.07.008

Reardon S.F., Bischoff K. (2011). Income inequality and income segregation. American Journal of Sociology, 116(4), 1092-1153. https://doi.org/10.1086/657114

Bayer P., McMillan R. (2012). Tiebout sorting and neighborhood stratification. Journal of Public Economics, 96(11-12), 1129-1143. Elsevier B.V..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2012.02.006

Quillian L. (2012). Segregation and Poverty Concentration: The Role of Three Segregations. American Sociological Review, 77(3), 354-379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122412447793

Gauvin L., Vignes A., Nadal J.-P. (2013). Modeling urban housing market dynamics: Can the socio spatial segregation preserve some social diversity?. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, 37(7), 1300-1321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jedc.2013.03.001

Meltzer R. (2013). Do Homeowners Associations Affect Citywide Segregation? Evidence From Florida Municipalities. Housing Policy Debate, 23(4), 688-713. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2013.812571

Enström Öst C., Söderberg B., Wilhelmsson M. (2014). Household allocation and spatial distribution in a market under ("soft") rent control. Journal of Policy Modeling, 36(2), 353-372. Elsevier.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpolmod.2014.01.002

Walks A. (2014). From Financialization to Sociospatial Polarization of the City? Evidence from Canada. Economic Geography, 90(1), 33-66. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecge.12024

De Fraja G., Martínez-Mora F. (2014). The desegregating effect of school tracking. Journal of Urban Economics, 80(), 164-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2014.01.001

Modai-Snir T., Plaut P.O. (2015). Intra metropolitan residential mobility and income sorting trends. Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences, 8(3), 291-305. Springer Verlag.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12076-014-0133-z

Musterd S., Van Gent W. (2015). Changing welfare context and income segregation in Amsterdam and its metropolitan area. Socio-Economic Segregation in European Capital Cities: East Meets West, 55-79. Taylor and Francis Inc..https://doi.org/

Owens A. (2015). Assisted Housing and Income Segregation among Neighborhoods in U.S. Metropolitan Areas. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 660(1), 98-116. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716215576106

Yang Y., Auchincloss A.H., Rodriguez D.A., Brown D.G., Riolo R., Diez-Roux A.V. (2015). Modeling spatial segregation and travel cost influences on utilitarian walking: Towards policy intervention. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems, 51(), 59-69. Elsevier Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compenvurbsys.2015.01.007

Owens A., Reardon S.F., Jencks C. (2016). Income Segregation Between Schools and School Districts. American Educational Research Journal, 53(4), 1159-1197. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216652722

Williamson P. (2016). Small Area Incomes: Their Spatial Variability and the Relative Efficacy of Proxy, Geodemographic, Imputed and Model Based Estimates. Applied Spatial Analysis and Policy, 9(4), 463-489. Springer Netherlands.https://doi.org/10.1007/s12061-015-9163-1

Andersson R., Hedman L. (2016). Economic decline and residential segregation: a Swedish study with focus on Malmö. Urban Geography, 37(5), 748-768. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2015.1133993

Owens A. (2016). Inequality in Children’s Contexts: Income Segregation of Households with and without Children. American Sociological Review, 81(3), 549-574. American Sociological Association.https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416642430

Quillian L., Lagrange H. (2016). Socioeconomic Segregation in Large Cities in France and the United States. Demography, 53(4), 1051-1084. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0491-9

Agostini C.A., Hojman D., Román A., Valenzuela L. (2016). Income residential segregation in Greater Santiago, 1992 2002: A robust estimation; [Segregación residencial de ingresos en el Gran Santiago, 1992 2002: Una estimación robusta]. Eure, 42(127), 159-184. Revista de Geografia Norte Grande.https://doi.org/10.4067/S0250-71612016000300007

Ruiz-Rivera N., Suárez M., Delgado-Campos J. (2016). Urban segregation and local retail environments. Evidence from Mexico City. Habitat International, 54(), 58-64. Elsevier Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2014.09.001

Wilson W.J. (2016). Black youths, joblessness, and the other side of ‘Black Lives Matter’. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(8), 1450-1457. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2016.1153689

Lens M.C., Monkkonen P. (2016). Do Strict Land Use Regulations Make Metropolitan Areas More Segregated by Income?. Journal of the American Planning Association, 82(1), 6-21. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2015.1111163

Johnson O.C.A. (2016). Inclusion, exclusion, and the “new” economic inequality. Texas Law Review, 94(7), 1647-1665. School of Law Publications.https://doi.org/

Saporito S. (2017). Shaping Income Segregation in Schools: The Role of School Attendance Zone Geography. American Educational Research Journal, 54(6), 1345-1377. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217724116

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Iceland J., Hernandez E. (2017). Understanding trends in concentrated poverty: 1980 2014. Social Science Research, 62(), 75-95. Academic Press Inc..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.09.001

Larson S.J. (2018). Examining the Efficacy of Title VI Social Equity Analysis: A Comparative Case Study of Transit Access and Neighborhood Segregation Outcomes Over Time. Public Integrity, 20(4), 344-357. Taylor and Francis Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1080/10999922.2018.1441595

Garcia-López M.-À., Moreno-Monroy A.I. (2018). Income segregation in monocentric and polycentric cities: Does urban form really matter?. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 71(), 62-79. Elsevier B.V..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2018.05.003

Heilmann K. (2018). Transit access and neighborhood segregation. Evidence from the Dallas light rail system. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 73(), 237-250. Elsevier B.V..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2018.10.007

Bond T.N., Salisbury L. (2018). Local Information, Income Segregation, and Geographic Mobility. B.E. Journal of Economic Analysis and Policy, 18(3), -. De Gruyter.https://doi.org/10.1515/bejeap-2017-0314

Reardon S.F., Bischoff K., Owens A., Townsend J.B. (2018). Has Income Segregation Really Increased? Bias and Bias Correction in Sample Based Segregation Estimates. Demography, 55(6), 2129-2160. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0721-4

Bélec J., Harris R., Rose G. (2018). The Federal Impact on Early Postwar Suburbanization. Housing Policy Debate, 28(6), 854-875. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2018.1474124

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Owens A. (2018). Income Segregation between School Districts and Inequality in Students’ Achievement. Sociology of Education, 91(1), 1-27. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/0038040717741180

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Taylor K., Anderson J., Frankenberg E. (2019). School and Residential Segregation in School Districts with Voluntary Integration Policies. Peabody Journal of Education, 94(4), 371-387. Routledge.https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2019.1648950

Bischoff K., Owens A. (2019). The Segregation of Opportunity: Social and Financial Resources in the Educational Contexts of Lower and Higher Income Children, 1990 2014. Demography, 56(5), 1635-1664. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC.https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-019-00817-y

Galster G., Turner L.M. (2019). Status Aversion, Attraction and Discrepancy as Drivers of Neighborhood Selection. City and Community, 18(3), 937-964. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1111/cico.12435

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Guo C., Buchmann C.M., Schwarz N. (2019). Linking urban sprawl and income segregation Findings from a stylized agent based model. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science, 46(3), 469-489. SAGE Publications Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1177/2399808317719072

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Nilsson I., Delmelle E.C. (202). Impact of new rail transit stations on neighborhood destination choices and income segregation. Cities, 102(), -. Elsevier Ltd.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2020.102737

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Drouhot L.G. (202). Income Segregation and the Incomplete Integration of Islam in the Paris Metropolitan Area. Socius, 6(), -. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023119899585

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Gallagher R.M. (2021). Income segregation's impact on local public expenditures: Evidence from municipalities and school districts, 1980 2010. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 90(), -. Elsevier B.V..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2021.103710

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Veneri P., Comandon A., Garcia-López M.-À., Daams M.N. (2021). What do divided cities have in common? An international comparison of income segregation. Journal of Regional Science, 61(1), 162-188. Blackwell Publishing Inc..https://doi.org/10.1111/jors.12506

Ismail M., Warsame A., Wilhelmsson M. (2021). Do segregated housing markets have a spillover effect on housing prices in nearby residential areas?. Journal of European Real Estate Research, 14(2), 169-186. Emerald Group Holdings Ltd..https://doi.org/10.1108/JERER-06-2020-0037

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Kulkarni N., Malmendier U. (2022). Homeownership segregation. Journal of Monetary Economics, 129(), 123-149. Elsevier B.V..https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2022.05.001

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Ekenga C.C., Tian R. (2022). Promoting Food Equity in the Context of Residential Segregation. Environmental Justice, 15(6), 346-351. Mary Ann Liebert Inc..https://doi.org/10.1089/env.2021.0029

Schachner J.N. (2022). Neighborhood Economic Change in an Era of Metropolitan Divergence. Urban Affairs Review, 58(4), 923-959. SAGE Publications Inc..https://doi.org/10.1177/10780874211016940

Ng M.K.M., Roper J., Lee C.L., Pettit C. (2022). The Reflection of Income Segregation and Accessibility Cleavages in Sydney’s House Prices. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 11(7), -. MDPI.https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi11070413

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Beaubrun-Diant K., Maury T.-P. (2022). On the Impact of Public Housing on Income Segregation in France. Demography, 59(2), 685-706. Duke University Press.https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9807596

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[1] Date and country of first publication as informed by the Scopus database (December 2023).

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Date and country of first publication[1]