Occupational sex segregation

1975
canada

Occupational sex segregation refers to the concentration of men and women in different occupations, with women being more likely to work in traditionally feminine jobs and men being more likely to work in traditionally masculine jobs. This segregation contributes to gender inequality in the labor market.

There are several factors that contribute to occupational sex segregation. These include societal gender norms and stereotypes that shape career choices and expectations, discrimination and bias in hiring and promotion practices, differences in education and training opportunities, and work-family balance considerations.

Occupational sex segregation has significant implications for gender equality and economic opportunities. It often leads to lower wages and fewer advancement opportunities for women, as jobs that are predominantly done by women tend to be undervalued and receive lower pay. Additionally, occupational sex segregation can perpetuate traditional gender roles and limit individuals' freedom to choose careers based on their interests and abilities rather than societal expectations.

Efforts to address occupational sex segregation include promoting gender equality in education and training, implementing policies to reduce discrimination in recruitment and promotion processes, and encouraging greater work-life balance for both men and women. These efforts aim to create a more inclusive and diverse labor market, where individuals have equal opportunities for employment and advancement regardless of their gender.

References

Leuze K.; Strauß S. (2016) "Why do occupations dominated by women pay less? How ‘female typical’ work tasks and working time arrangements affect the gender wage gap among higher education graduates", Work, Employment and Society, 30(5), pp. 802-820. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/0950017015624402

Bächmann A.-C.; Gatermann D. (2017) "The duration of family related employment interruptions the role of occupational characteristics; [Die Bedeutung des Berufs für die Dauer von Erwerbsunterbrechungen nach der Geburt des ersten Kindes]", Journal for Labour Market Research, 50(1), pp. 143-160. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. DOI: 10.1007/s12651-017-0226-4

Perales F. (2014) "Why do men and women still work in different occupations? A test of human capital and socialization theories", Progress in Economics Research, 29(), pp. 171-207. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.. DOI: [1]

Humpert S. (2014) "Occupational sex segregation and working time: Regional evidence from Germany", Panoeconomicus, 61(3), pp. 317-329. Savez Ekonomista Vojvodine. DOI: 10.2298/PAN1403317H

Baah-Boateng W. (2014) "Empirical analysis of the changing pattern of sex segregation of occupation in Ghana", International Journal of Social Economics, 41(8), pp. 650-663. Emerald Group Holdings Ltd.. DOI: 10.1108/IJSE-04-2013-0099

Frehill L.M.; Abreu A.; Zippel K. (2015) "Gender, science, and occupational sex segregation", Advancing Women in Science: An International Perspective, 51-79. Springer International Publishing. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-08629-3_3

Parashar S. (2014) "Marginalized by race and place: A multilevel analysis of occupational sex segregation in post apartheid South Africa", International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 34(), pp. 747-770. Emerald Group Holdings Ltd.. DOI: 10.1108/IJSSP-01-2014-0003

Perales F. (2013) "Occupational sex segregation, specialized human capital and wages: Evidence from Britain", Work, Employment and Society, 27(4), pp. 600-620. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/0950017012460305

Madichie N.O. (2013) "Sex in the kitchen: Changing gender roles in a female dominated occupation", International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Small Business, 18(1), pp. 90-102. Inderscience Publishers. DOI: 10.1504/IJESB.2013.050754

Vosko L.F.; MacDonald M.; Campbell I. (2009) "Introduction: Gender and the concept of precarious employment", Gender and the Contours of Precarious Employment, 1-25. Taylor and Francis. DOI: 10.4324/9780203874424-8

Görlich D.; de Grip A. (2009) "Human capital depreciation during hometime", Oxford Economic Papers, 61(SPEC. ISS.), pp. i98-i121. . DOI: 10.1093/oep/gpn044

McKinnish T.G. (2007) "Sexually integrated workplaces and divorce: Another form of on the job search", Journal of Human Resources, 42(2), pp. 331-352. University of Wisconsin Press. DOI: 10.3368/jhr.xlii.2.331

Watts M.; Rich J. (1993) "Occupational sex segregation in Britain, 1979 1989: The persistence of sexual stereotyping", Cambridge Journal of Economics, 17(2), pp. 159-177. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.cje.a035228

Shekeris A. (1999) "European trends: The cypriot female labour force and occupational sex segregation", Cyprus Review, 11(2), pp. 23-48. University of Nicosia. DOI: [2]

Rich J. (2002) "MEASURING OCCUPATIONAL SEX SEGREGATION: ACADEMIA IN AUSTRALIAN UNIVERSITIES, 1989 TO 2000", Economic Papers, 21(3), pp. 44-63. Wiley-Blackwell. DOI: 10.1111/j.1759-3441.2002.tb00323.x

McDowell L.; Court G. (1994) "Missing subjects: gender, power and sexuality in merchant banking", Economic Geography, 70(3), pp. 229-251. . DOI: 10.2307/143992

Blackwell L. (2001) "Women's work in UK official statistics and the 1980 reclassification of occupations", Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series A: Statistics in Society, 164(2), pp. 307-325. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/1467-985X.00204

Günlük-Senesen G.; Özar S. (2001) "Gender based occupational segregation in the Turkish banking sector", Research in Middle East Economics, 4(), pp. 247-267. Elsevier. DOI: 10.1016/s1094-5334(01)04014-6

Watts M. (1992) "How Should Occupational Sex Segregation be Measured?", Work Employment & Society, 6(3), pp. 475-487. . DOI: 10.1177/095001709263009

KARMEL T.; MACLACHLAN M. (1988) "Occupational Sex Segregation Increasing or Decreasing?", Economic Record, 64(3), pp. 187-195. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-4932.1988.tb02057.x

Neuman S. (1991) "The marriage market and occupational sex segregation: A "new home economics" approach", Journal of Socio-Economics, 20(4), pp. 347-358. . DOI: 10.1016/1053-5357(91)90010-Q

Watts M.J.; Rich J. (1992) "Occupational sex segregation in the UK 1979 89: The role of part time employment*", International Review of Applied Economics, 6(3), pp. 286-308. . DOI: 10.1080/758534263

WATTS M.J.; RICH J. (1992) "LABOUR MARKET SEGMENTATION AND THE PERSISTENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL SEX SEGREGATION IN AUSTRALIA", Australian Economic Papers, 31(58), pp. 58-76. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-8454.1992.tb00555.x

Block P. (2023) "Understanding the self organization of occupational sex segregation with mobility networks", Social Networks, 73(), pp. 42-50. Elsevier B.V.. DOI: 10.1016/j.socnet.2022.12.004

Sullivan V.; Coles L.; Xu Y.; Perales F.; Thorpe K. (2020) "Beliefs and attributions: Insider accounts of men’s place in early childhood education and care", Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 21(2), pp. 126-137. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/1463949120929462

Cleveland J.N.; Menendez J.; Wallace L. (2017) "Talent Management in a Gender Diverse Workforce", The Wiley Blackwell Handbook of the Psychology of Recruitment, Selection and Employee Retention, 376-399. Wiley Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/9781118972472.ch18

Kalev A.; Deutsch G. (2018) "Gender Inequality and Workplace Organizations: Understanding Reproduction and Change", Handbooks of Sociology and Social Research, 257-269. Springer Science and Business Media B.V.. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-76333-0_19

Stockdale M.S.; Nadler J.T. (2014) "Occupational sex segregation: Disciplinary and ideological approaches to understanding women’s and men’s employment patterns1", Diversity Ideologies in Organizations, 119-149. Taylor and Francis. DOI: 10.4324/9781315852188

Stockdale M.S.; Nadler J.T. (2013) "Paradigmatic Assumptions of Disciplinary Research on Gender Disparities: The Case of Occupational Sex Segregation", Sex Roles, 68(3-4), pp. 207-215. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC. DOI: 10.1007/s11199-012-0228-1

Buchmann M.; Kriesi I. (2009) "Escaping the gender trap: Young women's transition into nontraditional occupations", Transitions from School to Work: Globalization, Individualization, and Patterns of Diversity, 193-216. Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511605369.009

Queneau H. (2006) "Is the long term reduction in occupational sex segregation still continuing in the United States?", Social Science Journal, 43(4), pp. 681-688. . DOI: 10.1016/j.soscij.2006.08.019

Coventry B.T. (1999) "Do men leave feminizing occupations?", Social Science Journal, 36(1), pp. 47-64. Elsevier Inc.. DOI: 10.1016/S0362-3319(99)80003-2

Hondagneu-Sotelo P. (1999) "Introduction: Gender and Contemporary U.S. Immigration", American Behavioral Scientist, 42(4), pp. 565-576. . DOI: 10.1177/00027649921954363

Straits B.C. (1998) "Occupational sex segregation: The role of personal ties", Journal of Vocational Behavior, 52(2), pp. 191-207. . DOI: 10.1006/jvbe.1997.1598

Lach D.H.; Gwartney-Gibbs P.A. (1993) "Sociological perspectives on sexual harassment and workplace dispute resolution", Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42(1), pp. 102-115. . DOI: 10.1006/jvbe.1993.1007

Kelley K.; Streeter D. (1992) "Chapter 10 the roles of gender in organizations", Advances in Psychology, 82(C), pp. 285-337. . DOI: 10.1016/S0166-4115(08)62606-0

Duncan K.C.; Prus M.J. (1992) "Starting wages of women in female and male occupations: A test of the human capital explanation of occupational sex segregation", The Social Science Journal, 29(4), pp. 479-493. . DOI: 10.1016/0362-3319(92)90008-6

Jacobsen J.P. (1994) "Sex segregation at work: Trends and predictions", The Social Science Journal, 31(2), pp. 153-169. . DOI: 10.1016/0362-3319(94)90015-9

Bell C.S. (1988) "Organizational Influences on Women's Experience in the Superintendency", Peabody Journal of Education, 65(4), pp. 31-59. . DOI: 10.1080/01619568809538620

Brick C.; Schneider D.; Harknett K. (2023) "The Gender Wage Gap, Between Firm Inequality, and Devaluation: Testing a New Hypothesis in the Service Sector", Work and Occupations, -. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/07308884221141072

Adjei M.; Chan A.H.N. (2023) "What Women Do, Believe in, and Financially Contribute What Matters More in Couples' Decision Making? Gender Inequality in Ghana's Small Scale Fisheries☆", Rural Sociology, 88(1), pp. 220-251. Rural Sociological Society. DOI: 10.1111/ruso.12474

Sullivan V.; Coles L.; Xu Y.; Thorpe K. (2023) "Men times ten: does the presence of more men support inclusion of male educators in early childhood education and care?", Gender and Education, 35(1), pp. 18-36. Routledge. DOI: 10.1080/09540253.2022.2137106

Chatterjee E.; Vanneman R.D. (2022) "Women's Low Employment Rates in India: Cultural and Structural Explanations", Population and Development Review, 48(2), pp. 445-474. John Wiley and Sons Inc. DOI: 10.1111/padr.12474

Chesters J. (2022) "Understanding the Persistence of Occupational Sex Segregation in German Labour Markets: How Gender Attitudes Shape Young Women’s Occupational Aspirations", Journal of Applied Youth Studies, 5(1), pp. 55-73. Springer. DOI: 10.1007/s43151-021-00065-1

Tahir M.W. (2021) "Theme I: Occupational Segregation Gender and Integration Sensitivity of Legislation", Contributions to Political Science, 29-47. Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-63735-4_4

Moskos M. (2020) "Why is the gender revolution uneven and stalled? Gender essentialism and men's movement into ‘women's work'", Gender, Work and Organization, 27(4), pp. 527-544. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/gwao.12406

Damelang A.; Ebensperger S. (2020) "Gender composition of occupations and occupational characteristics: Explaining their true relationship by using longitudinal data", Social Science Research, 86(), pp. -. Academic Press Inc.. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2019.102394

Nawyn S.J.; Park J. (2019) "Gendered segmented assimilation: earnings trajectories of African immigrant women and men", Ethnic and Racial Studies, 42(2), pp. 216-234. Routledge. DOI: 10.1080/01419870.2017.1400085

(2019) "The economy and intimate partner violence", The Social Dynamics of Family Violence, Third Edition, 241-271. Taylor and Francis. DOI: [3]

Horowitz J. (2018) "Relative Education and the Advantage of a College Degree", American Sociological Review, 83(4), pp. 771-801. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/0003122418785371

Hinojosa-Alcalde I.; Andrés A.; Serra P.; Vilanova A.; Soler S.; Norman L. (2018) "Understanding the gendered coaching workforce in Spanish sport", International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching, 13(4), pp. 485-495. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/1747954117747744

Valet P. (2018) "Social Structure and the Paradox of the Contented Female Worker: How Occupational Gender Segregation Biases Justice Perceptions of Wages", Work and Occupations, 45(2), pp. 168-193. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/0730888417753048

Pruitt A.-S. (2018) "Redoing Gender: How Women in the Funeral Industry Use Essentialism for Equality", Gender, Work and Organization, 25(2), pp. 144-158. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/gwao.12203

Chatterjee E.; Desai S.; Vanneman R. (2018) "Indian paradox: Rising education, declining women's employment", Demographic Research, 38(1), pp. 855-878. Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. DOI: 10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.31

Roos P.A.; Stevens L.M. (2018) "Integrating occupations: Changing occupational sex segregation in the United States from 2000 to 2014", Demographic Research, 38(1), pp. 127-154. Max Planck Institute for Demographic Research. DOI: 10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.5

Elman C.; Chesters J. (2017) "Adult men and the post industrial ‘turn’: Breadwinning gender norms, masculine occupational tasks and midlife school trajectories", Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 51(), pp. 1-13. JAI Press. DOI: 10.1016/j.rssm.2017.06.004

Chandrakanta (2017) "Social Network as a survival strategy for migrant women construction workers in Delhi", Urban Book Series, 755-766. Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47145-7_45

Mun E.; Brinton M.C. (2017) "Revisiting the welfare state paradox: A firm level analysis from Japan", Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 47(), pp. 33-43. JAI Press. DOI: 10.1016/j.rssm.2016.03.004

Grand C.; Tählin M. (2017) "Work in Sweden 1974 2010: Work life inequality at the intersection of class and gender", Sociologisk Forskning, 54(4), pp. 279-282. Sociologisk Forskning. DOI: [4]

Levanon A.; Grusky D.B. (2016) "The persistence of extreme gender segregation in the Twenty first century", American Journal of Sociology, 122(2), pp. 573-619. University of Chicago Press. DOI: 10.1086/688628

Perales F.; Vidal S. (2015) "Looking Inwards: Towards a Geographically Sensitive Approach to Occupational Sex Segregation", Regional Studies, 49(4), pp. 582-598. Routledge. DOI: 10.1080/00343404.2013.786828

Flores G.M.; Hondagneu-Sotelo P. (2014) "The Social dynamics channelling latina college graduates into the teaching profession", Gender, Work and Organization, 21(6), pp. 491-515. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/gwao.12051

Ruppanner L.; Huffman M.L. (2014) "Blurred Boundaries: Gender and Work Family Interference in Cross National Context", Work and Occupations, 41(2), pp. 210-236. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/0730888413500679

Guinea-Martin D.; Solera C. (2013) "Do women in female dominated occupations exit the labour market more? evidence from Italy, Spain, Denmark and the UK", Population Review, 52(1), pp. 172-191. . DOI: 10.1353/prv.2013.0002

Eastman J.T.; Danaher W.F.; Schrock D. (2013) "Gendering Truck Driving Songs: The Cultural Masculinization of an Occupation", Sociological Spectrum, 33(5), pp. 416-432. . DOI: 10.1080/02732173.2013.818508

Perales F.; Vidal S. (2013) "Occupational characteristics, occupational sex segregation, and family migration decisions", Population, Space and Place, 19(5), pp. 487-504. . DOI: 10.1002/psp.1727

Begall K.; Mills M.C. (2013) "The influence of educational field, occupation, and occupational sex segregation on fertility in the Netherlands", European Sociological Review, 29(4), pp. 720-742. . DOI: 10.1093/esr/jcs051

Bielby D.D. (2013) "Gender inequality in culture industries", The Routledge Companion to Media & Gender, 137-146. Taylor and Francis. DOI: 10.4324/9780203066911-20

Schäfer A.; Tucci I.; Gottschall K. (2012) "Top down or bottom up? A cross national study of vertical occupational sex segregation in 12 european countries", Comparative Social Research, 29(), pp. 3-43. . DOI: 10.1108/S0195-6310(2012)0000029005

Steinmetz S. (2012) "The contextual challenges of occupational sex segregation: Deciphering cross national differences in Europe", The Contextual Challenges of Occupational Sex Segregation: Deciphering Cross-National Differences in Europe, 9783531930565(), pp. 1-288. VS Verlag fur Sozialwissenschaften. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-531-93056-5

Baird C.L. (2012) "Going Against the Flow: A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Cognitive Skills and Gender Beliefs on Occupational Aspirations and Outcomes", Sociological Forum, 27(4), pp. 986-1009. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1573-7861.2012.01365.x

Minnotte K.L.; Cook A.; Minnotte M.C. (2010) "Occupation and industry sex segregation, gender, and workplace support: The use of flexible scheduling policies", Journal of Family Issues, 31(5), pp. 656-680. . DOI: 10.1177/0192513X09348593

García T.M. (2010) "The impact of occupational sex composition on women's fertility in Spain", European Societies, 12(1), pp. 113-133. . DOI: 10.1080/14616690802474366

Moore D. (2009) "Job concessions, role conflict and work satisfaction in gender typical and Atypical occupation: The case of Israel", Gender Issues, 26(1), pp. 42-64. . DOI: 10.1007/s12147-009-9070-3

Kumlin J. (2010) "Occupational shifts across sex type boundaries in the Swedish labour market", Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 28(4), pp. 417-436. JAI Press. DOI: 10.1016/j.rssm.2010.06.003

Shauman K.A. (2009) "Are there sex differences in the utilization of educational capital among college educated workers?", Social Science Research, 38(3), pp. 535-571. . DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2009.02.004

Webb J. (2009) "Gender and occupation in market economies: Change and restructuring since the 1980s", Social Politics, 16(1), pp. 82-110. . DOI: 10.1093/sp/jxp003

Pettit B.; Hook J.L. (2009) "Gendered tradeoffs: Family, social policy, and economic inequality in twenty one countries", Gendered Tradeoffs: Family, Social Policy, and Economic Inequality in Twenty-One Countries, 1-236. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: [5]

Snyder K.A.; Green A.I. (2008) "Revisiting the glass escalator: The case of gender segregation in a female dominated occupation", Social Problems, 55(2), pp. 271-299. . DOI: 10.1525/sp.2008.55.2.271

Krymkowski D.H.; Mintz B. (2008) "What types of occupations are women entering?. Determinants of changes in female representation: 1970 2000", Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 26(1), pp. 1-14. JAI Press. DOI: 10.1016/j.rssm.2007.08.007

Rich J.; Palaz S. (2008) "Why has occupational sex segregation in Turkey increased since 1975?", Labour, 22(1), pp. 185-218. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9914.2008.000408.x

Polavieja J.G. (2008) "The effect of qccupational sex composition on earnings: Job specialization, sex role attitudes and the division of domestic labour in Spain", European Sociological Review, 24(2), pp. 199-213. . DOI: 10.1093/esr/jcm043

Kim H.; Voos P.B. (2007) "The Korean economic crisis and working women", Journal of Contemporary Asia, 37(2), pp. 190-208. . DOI: 10.1080/00472330701253874

Estévez-Abe M. (2006) "Gendering the varieties of capitalism: A study of occupational segregation by sex in advanced industrial societies", World Politics, 59(1), pp. 142-175. . DOI: 10.1353/wp.2007.0016

England P. (2006) "Toward gender equality: Progress and bottlenecks", The Declining Significance of Gender?, 245-264. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: [6]

Shauman K.A. (2006) "Occupational sex segregation and the earnings of occupations: What causes the link among college educated workers?", Social Science Research, 35(3), pp. 577-619. . DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2004.12.001

Ridgeway C.L. (2006) "Gender as an organizing force in social relations: Implications for the future of inequality", The Declining Significance of Gender?, 265-287. Russell Sage Foundation. DOI: [7]

Larsen E.A. (2006) "The impact of occupational sex segregation on family businesses: The case of American harness racing", Gender, Work and Organization, 13(4), pp. 359-382. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-0432.2006.00312.x

Correll S.J.; Benard S. (2006) "Biased estimators? Comparing status and statistical theories of gender discrimination", Advances in Group Processes, 23(), pp. 89-116. . DOI: 10.1016/S0882-6145(06)23004-2

Kmec J.A. (2005) "Setting occupational sex segregation in motion: Demand side explanations of sex traditional employment", Work and Occupations, 32(3), pp. 322-354. . DOI: 10.1177/0730888405277703

Jerby I.; Semyonov M.; Lewin-Epstein N. (2005) "Capturing gender based microsegregation : A modified ratio index for comparative analyses", Sociological Methods and Research, 34(1), pp. 122-136. . DOI: 10.1177/0049124104269669

Charles M. (2005) "National skill regimes, postindustrialism, and sex segregation", Social Politics, 12(2), pp. 289-316. . DOI: 10.1093/sp/jxi015

Trappe H.; Rosenfeld R.A. (2004) "Occupational Sex Segregation and Family Formation in the Former East and West Germany", Work and Occupations, 31(2), pp. 155-192. . DOI: 10.1177/0730888404263895

Tallerico M.; Blount J.M. (2004) "Women and the Superintendency: Insights from Theory and History", Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(5), pp. 633-662. . DOI: 10.1177/0013161X04268837

Chang M.L. (2004) "Growing pains: Cross national variation in sex segregation in sixteen developing countries", American Sociological Review, 69(1), pp. 114-137. American Sociological Association. DOI: 10.1177/000312240406900107

Meyer L.B. (2003) "Economic Globalization and Women's Status in the Labor Market: A Cross National Investigation of Occupational Sex Segregation and Inequality", Sociological Quarterly, 44(3), pp. 351-383. University of California Press. DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.2003.tb00537.x

Flynn N.T. (2003) "The differential effect of labor market context on marginal employment outcomes", Sociological Spectrum, 23(3), pp. 305-330. . DOI: 10.1080/02732170309201

Charles M. (2003) "Deciphering Sex Segregation: Vertical and Horizontal Inequalities in Ten National Labor Markets", Acta Sociologica, 46(4), pp. 267-287. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/0001699303464001

Rotolo T.; Wharton A. (2003) "Living across institutions: Exploring sex based homophily in occupations and voluntary groups", Sociological Perspectives, 46(1), pp. 59-82+138. University of California Press. DOI: 10.1525/sop.2003.46.1.59

Hultin M. (2003) "Some take the glass escalator, some hit the glass ceiling?: Career consequences of occupational sex segregation", Work and Occupations, 30(1), pp. 30-61. . DOI: 10.1177/0730888402239326

Jones E.; Oppenheim C. (2002) "Glass ceiling issues in the UK library profession", Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 34(2), pp. 103-115. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/096100060203400205

Baunach D.M. (2002) "Trends in occupational sex segregation and inequality, 1950 to 1990", Social Science Research, 31(1), pp. 77-98. Academic Press Inc.. DOI: 10.1006/ssre.2001.0719

Hang-Yue N. (2002) "Trends in Occupational Sex Segregation in Urban China", Gender Technology And Development, 6(2), pp. 175-196. . DOI: 10.1177/097185240200600201

Rosenfeld R.A.; Trappe H. (2002) "Occupational sex segregation in state socialist and market economies: Levels, patterns, and change in East and West Germany, 1980s and 1998", Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 19(C), pp. 231-267. . DOI: 10.1016/S0276-5624(02)80043-9

Bellas M.L.; Coventry B.T. (2001) "Salesmen, saleswomen, or sales workers? Determinants of the sex composition of sales occupations", Sociological Forum, 16(1), pp. 73-98. . DOI: 10.1023/A:1007609303061

Yodanis C.L. (2000) "Constructing gender and occupational segregation: A study of women and work in fishing communities", Qualitative Sociology, 23(3), pp. 267-290. Springer Science and Business Media Deutschland GmbH. DOI: 10.1023/A:1005515926536

Blackwell L. (2001) "Occupational sex segregation and part time work in modern Britain", Gender, Work and Organization, 8(2), pp. 146-163. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/1468-0432.00126

Chan T.W. (1999) "Revolving doors reexamined: Occupational sex segregation over the life course", American Sociological Review, 64(1), pp. 86-96. American Sociological Association. DOI: 10.2307/2657279

Wells T. (1999) "Changes in occupational sex segregation during the 1980s and 1990s", Social Science Quarterly, 80(2), pp. 370-380. . DOI: [8]

Okamoto D.; England P. (1999) "Is there a supply side to occupational sex segregation?", Sociological Perspectives, 42(4), pp. 557-582. University of California Press. DOI: 10.2307/1389574

Bradley K. (2000) "The incorporation of women into higher education: Paradoxical outcomes?", Sociology of Education, 73(1), pp. 1-18. American Sociological Association. DOI: 10.2307/2673196

Chang M.L. (2000) "The evolution of sex segregation regimes", American Journal of Sociology, 10(6), pp. 1658-1701. University of Chicago Press. DOI: 10.1086/210469

Wyly E.K. (1999) "Local labor markets and occupational sex segregation in an American metropolis", Journal of Urban Affairs, 21(1), pp. 1-33. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/0735-2166.00001

Wyly E.K. (1998) "Containment and mismatch: Gender differences in commuting in metropolitan labor markets", Urban Geography, 19(5), pp. 395-430. . DOI: 10.2747/0272-3638.19.5.395

Phillips M.W. (1998) "Gendered work: An analysis of work in a Fijian garment factory", Australian Geographer, 29(3 SPEC. ISS. 1), pp. 341-355. Carfax Publishing Company. DOI: 10.1080/00049189808703228

Weeden K.A. (1998) "Revisiting occupational sex segregation in the United States, 1910 1990: Results from a log linear approach", Demography, 35(4), pp. 475-487. Duke University Press. DOI: 10.2307/3004015

Reskin B.; Cassirer N. (1996) "Occupational segregation by gender, race and ethnicity", Sociological Focus, 29(3), pp. 231-243. . DOI: 10.1080/00380237.1996.10570642

Mccammon H.J. (1996) "Protection for whom? Maximum hours laws and women's employment in the United States, 1880 1920", Work and Occupations, 23(2), pp. 132-164. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/0730888496023002002

Li J.H.; Buchmann M.; König M.; Sacchi S. (1998) "Patterns of mobility for women in female dominated occupations: An event history analysis of two birth cohorts of Swiss women", European Sociological Review, 14(1), pp. 49-67. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.esr.a018227

Evans G. (1996) "Putting men and women into classes: An assessment of the cross sex validity of the Goldthorpe class schema", Sociology, 30(2), pp. 209-234. Cambridge University Press. DOI: 10.1177/0038038596030002002

Frehill L.M. (1997) "Education and occupational sex segregation: The decision to major in engineering", Sociological Quarterly, 38(2), pp. 225-249. University of California Press. DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1997.tb00475.x

Jacobs S.C. (1995) "Changing patterns of sex segregated occupations throughout the life course", European Sociological Review, 11(2), pp. 157-171. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.esr.a036354

Cassirer N. (1996) "Race composition and earnings: Effects by race, region, and gender", Social Science Research, 25(4), pp. 375-399. Academic Press Inc.. DOI: 10.1006/ssre.1996.0017

Cotter D.A.; DeFiore J.; Hermsen J.M.; Kowalewski B.M.; Vanneman R. (1996) "Gender inequality in nonmetropolitan and metropolitan areas", Rural Sociology, 61(2), pp. 272-288. Rural Sociological Society. DOI: 10.1111/j.1549-0831.1996.tb00620.x

Alizadeh P.; Harper B. (1995) "Occupational sex segregation in Iran 1976 86", Journal of International Development, 7(4), pp. 637-651. . DOI: 10.1002/jid.3380070406

Nermo M. (1996) "Occupational sex segregation in Sweden, 1968 1991", Work and Occupations, 23(3), pp. 319-332. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1177/0730888496023003005

Brinton M.C.; Ngo H.-Y. (1993) "Age and sex in the occupational structure: A United States Japan comparison", Sociological Forum, 8(1), pp. 93-111. Kluwer Academic Publishers-Plenum Publishers. DOI: 10.1007/BF01112332

McDowell L.; Court G. (1994) "Gender divisions of labour in the post Fordist economy: the maintenance of occupational sex segregation in the financial services sector", Environment & Planning A, 26(9), pp. 1397-1418. . DOI: 10.1068/a261397

Rosenfeld R.A.; Spenner K.I. (1992) "Occupational Sex Segregation and Women's Early Career Job Shifts", Work and Occupations, 19(4), pp. 424-449. . DOI: 10.1177/0730888492019004005

Lorence J. (1992) "Service Sector Growth and Metropolitan Occupational Sex Segregation", Work and Occupations, 19(2), pp. 128-156. . DOI: 10.1177/0730888492019002002

Birkelund G.E. (1992) "Stratification and Segregation", Acta Sociologica, 35(1), pp. 47-61. . DOI: 10.1177/000169939203500104

McKinnon M.; Ahola‐Sidaway J. (1994) "Office workers, factory workers, cashiers or cooks: A north american perspective on vocational education reform at the secondary school level", Vocational Aspect of Education, 46(1), pp. 41-60. . DOI: 10.1080/0305787940460105

Watts M. (1993) "Explaining trends in occupational segregation: Some comments", European Sociological Review, 9(3), pp. 315-319. Oxford University Press. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.esr.a036683

Charles M. (1992) "Cross national variation in occupational sex segregation", American Sociological Review, 57(4), pp. 483-502. . DOI: 10.2307/2096096

Kane M.J.; Stangl J.M. (1991) "Employment Patterns of Female Coaches in Men's Athletics: Tokenism and Marginalization as Reflections of Occupational Sex Segregation", Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 15(1), pp. 21-41. . DOI: 10.1177/019372359101500102

Presser H.B.; Kishor S. (1991) "Economic development and occupational sex segregation in Puerto Rico: 1950 80", Population & Development Review, 17(1), pp. 53-85. . DOI: 10.2307/1972352

Putnam G.W. (1990) "OCCUPATIONAL SEX SEGREGATION AND ECONOMIC INEQUALITY UNDER SOCIALISM: Earnings Attainment and Earnings Decomposition in Yugoslavia", Sociological Quarterly, 31(1), pp. 59-75. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1990.tb00317.x

England P.; Browne I. (1992) "Trends in Women's Economic Status", Sociological Perspectives, 35(1), pp. 17-51. . DOI: 10.2307/1389367

Lyson T.A. (1991) "Industrial shifts, occupational recomposition, and the changing sexual division of labor in the five largest U.S. cities: 1910 1930", Sociological Forum, 6(1), pp. 157-177. Kluwer Academic Publishers-Plenum Publishers. DOI: 10.1007/BF01112732

McIlwee J.S. (1988) "Reducing occupational sex segregation: Explaining failure and success", Sociological Focus, 21(1), pp. 33-51. . DOI: 10.1080/00380237.1988.10570967

Pratt G.; Hanson S. (1988) "Gender, class, and space", Environment & Planning D: Society & Space, 6(1), pp. 15-35. . DOI: 10.1068/d060015

Smart J.C.; Ethington C.A. (1987) "Occupational sex segregation and job satisfaction of women", Research in Higher Education, 26(2), pp. 202-211. Kluwer Academic Publishers. DOI: 10.1007/BF00992029

Gwartney-Gibbs P.A. (1988) "Sex Segregation in the Paid Workforce: The New Zealand Case", Journal of Sociology, 24(2), pp. 264-278. . DOI: 10.1177/144078338802400205

Jacobs J.A. (1989) "Long term trends in occupational segregation by sex", American Journal of Sociology, 95(1), pp. 160-173. . DOI: 10.1086/229217

Stevens G.; Hoisington E. (1987) "Occupational prestige and the 1980 U.S. labor force", Social Science Research, 16(1), pp. 74-105. . DOI: 10.1016/0049-089X(87)90019-6

Bianchi S.M.; Rytina N. (1986) "The decline in occupational sex segregation during the 19705: census and cps comparisons", Demography, 23(1), pp. 79-86. . DOI: 10.2307/2061409

Gupta P.D. (1987) "Comment on suzanne M. Bianchi and Nancy Rytina's "the decline in occupational sex segregation during the 1970s: Census and CPs comparisons"", Demography, 24(2), pp. 291-295. . DOI: 10.2307/2061636

Stafford M.T.; Fossett M.A. (1989) "Occupational sex inequality in the nonmetropolitan South, 1960 1980", Rural Sociology, 54(2), pp. 169-194. . DOI: [9]

Johnston-Anumonwo I. (1988) "The journey to work and occupational segregation", Urban Geography, 9(2), pp. 138-154. . DOI: 10.2747/0272-3638.9.2.138

Monk‐Turner E.; Baba Y. (1987) "Gender and College Opportunities: Changes Over Time in the United States and Japan", Sociological Inquiry, 57(3), pp. 292-303. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-682X.1987.tb01047.x

Kollehlon K.T. (1989) "Occupational status attainment in Liberia: The roles of achievement and ascription", Social Science Research, 18(2), pp. 151-173. . DOI: 10.1016/0049-089X(89)90017-3

Levy D.E.; Miller R.K., Jr.; Willis C.L. (1984) "Social and Economic Structural Antecedents of Fertility", Sociological Inquiry, 54(1), pp. 26-43. . DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-682X.1984.tb00043.x

Rosenfeld R.A.; Størensen A.B. (1979) "Sex differences in patterns of career mobility", Demography, 16(1), pp. 89-101. Springer-Verlag. DOI: 10.2307/2061081

Schnepper J.A. (1977) "Occupational Sexual Segregation and the Unemployment Vortex", Business & Society, 17(2), pp. 5-10. . DOI: 10.1177/000765037701700201

Occupational sex segregation

See also

References

Further reading