American segregation

2012
united states

American segregation refers to the system of racial separation and discrimination that was prevalent in the United States from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century. It was based on the belief in the inferiority of African Americans and aimed to enforce racial boundaries and maintain white dominance in society.

Segregation laws, known as Jim Crow laws, were enacted in the Southern states and mandated separate facilities and services for African Americans and whites. This included separate schools, restaurants, drinking fountains, restrooms, public transportation, and even park benches. African Americans were also denied the right to vote through voting restrictions such as poll taxes and literacy tests.

The Civil Rights Movement, which gained momentum in the 1950s and 1960s, sought to end segregation and secure equal rights for African Americans. The movement included nonviolent protests, such as sit-ins and marches, led by notable figures like Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and Malcolm X. The landmark Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965 were significant federal legislations that outlawed segregation and prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. These laws helped dismantle the legal basis for segregation and segregationist practices gradually lost their legal standing.

While segregation is no longer legally enforced, its legacy continues to affect American society. Racial disparities persist in areas such as housing, education, employment, and criminal justice. Efforts to promote racial equality and address the lingering effects of segregation are ongoing.

Further reading

Dyreson M.; Sikes M.M. (2022) "‘I See the Struggle against Race Supremacy and Racial Inequality as World Wide’: Anti Apartheid Campaigns, Civil Rights Struggles, and the 1961 Track and Field Tours of South Africa", International Journal of the History of Sport, 39(8-9), pp. 908-937. Routledge. DOI: 10.1080/09523367.2022.2093347

Zecker R.M. (2021) "“Nothing Less than Full Freedom” Radical Immigrant Newspapers Champion Black Civil Rights", American Communist History, 20(3-4), pp. 165-188. Routledge. DOI: 10.1080/14743892.2021.2009316

Dunbar E.E. (2012) "Black regions of the imagination: African American writers between the nation and the world", Black Regions of the Imagination: African American Writers Between the Nation and the World, 1-213. Temple University Press. DOI: [1]

Hackworth J. (2023) "Anti Black residential preferences in Toronto", Journal of Urban Affairs, -. Taylor and Francis Ltd.. DOI: 10.1080/07352166.2022.2157731

Garrido M. (2021) "Reconceptualizing Segregation from the Global South", City and Community, 20(1), pp. 24-37. SAGE Publications Inc.. DOI: 10.1111/cico.12504

Anderson K.F. (2020) "Residential Segregation, Neighborhood Health Care Organizations, and Children's Health Care Utilization in the Phoenix Urbanized Area", City and Community, 19(3), pp. 771-801. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. DOI: 10.1111/cico.12475

Easley J. (2018) "Spatial mismatch beyond black and white: Levels and determinants of job access among Asian and Hispanic subpopulations", Urban Studies, 55(8), pp. 1800-1820. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: 10.1177/0042098017696254

Martinez M.L. (2016) "Neighborhood context and the development of African American Children", Neighborhood Context and the Development of African American Children, 1-153. Taylor and Francis Inc.. DOI: 10.4324/9781315790893

Powers J.M. (2014) "On separate paths: The Mexican American and African American legal campaigns against school segregation", American Journal of Education, 121(1), pp. 29-55. University of Chicago Press. DOI: 10.1086/678124

Iceland J. (2004) "Beyond Black and White Metropolitan residential segregation in multi ethnic America", Social Science Research, 33(2), pp. 248-271. Academic Press Inc.. DOI: 10.1016/S0049-089X(03)00056-5

Wilkes R. (2003) "The residential segregation of native americans in U.S. Metropolitan areas", Sociological Focus, 36(2), pp. 127-142. . DOI: 10.1080/00380237.2003.10570720

Cashin S.D. (2001) "Middle class black suburbs and the state of integration: A post integrationist vision for metropolitan America", Cornell Law Review, 86(4), pp. 729-730. . DOI: [2]

Zhang Q. (1998) "Residential segregation of Asian Americans in the Atlanta metropolitan area, 1990", Southeastern Geographer, 38(2), pp. 125-141. University of Georgia. DOI: 10.1353/sgo.1998.0016

Peach C. (1996) "Good segregation, bad segregation", Planning Perspectives, 11(4), pp. 379-398. . DOI: 10.1080/026654396364817

Matre M.; Mindiola T., Jr. (1981) "Residential segregation in Southwestern metropolitan areas: 1970", Sociological Focus, 14(1), pp. 15-31. . DOI: 10.1080/00380237.1981.10570379