Black residential segregation

Date and country of first publication

1975
united states

Definition

{NoteAI} Black residential segregation refers to the separation of Black individuals or communities from white individuals or communities in terms of housing and neighborhoods. This segregation has historically been enforced through various mechanisms, such as redlining, restrictive covenants, and discriminatory lending practices.

Redlining, practiced by government agencies and private lenders in the 1930s, involved drawing maps to determine areas where loans for housing purchases would be denied based on race. These maps systematically excluded predominantly Black neighborhoods, limiting their access to mortgage loans and preventing upward mobility.

Restrictive covenants were clauses in property deeds that forbade the sale or rental of housing to Black individuals. These covenants were prevalent in many neighborhoods and were often enforced through legal means.

Discriminatory lending practices denied Black individuals loans for the purchase or improvement of homes, which made it difficult for them to move into predominantly white neighborhoods. This practice, known as "mortgage discrimination," perpetuated segregation and limited Black individuals' housing choices.

The consequences of residential segregation have been far-reaching. Segregation has limited educational opportunities, increased poverty rates, and exacerbated health disparities within Black communities. It has also perpetuated social and economic inequalities, as segregated neighborhoods tend to have fewer resources, higher crime rates, and less access to quality healthcare and employment opportunities.

While residential segregation has diminished somewhat since the civil rights era, its effects continue to be felt to this day. Efforts to combat segregation and promote fair housing have been made, such as the Fair Housing Act of 1968, which prohibits housing discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. However, challenges remain in fully addressing the systemic causes and effects of residential segregation.

Further reading

Marshall H.; Jiobu R. (1975) "Residential Segregation in United States Cities: A Causal Analysis", Social Forces, 53(3), pp. 449-460. Oxford University Press. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1093/sf/53.3.449 10.1093/sf/53.3.449]

Darden J.T. (1982) "Black residential segregation: Impact of State Licensing Laws", Journal of Black Studies, 12(4), pp. 415-426. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1177/002193478201200404 10.1177/002193478201200404]

Stahura J.M. (1983) "Determinants of Change in the Distribution of Blacks across Suburbs", Sociological Quarterly, 24(3), pp. 421-433. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1111/j.1533-8525.1983.tb00711.x 10.1111/j.1533-8525.1983.tb00711.x]

Massey D.S.; Condran G.A.; Denton N.A. (1987) "The effect of Residential Segregation on Black Social and Economic Well Being", Social Forces, 66(1), pp. 29-56. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1093/sf/66.1.29 10.1093/sf/66.1.29]

Boyd R.L. (1994) "The Allocation of Black Workers into the Public Sector", Sociological Focus, 27(1), pp. 35-51. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.1994.10571008 10.1080/00380237.1994.10571008]

Darden J.T. (1995) "Black residential segregation since the 1948 Shelley V. Kraemer decision", Journal of Black Studies, 25(6), pp. 680-691. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1177/002193479502500603 10.1177/002193479502500603]

Massey D.S.; Fischer M.J. (1999) "Does rising income bring integration? New results for Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians in 1990", Social Science Research, 28(3), pp. 316-326. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1006/ssre.1999.0660 10.1006/ssre.1999.0660]

Darden J.T.; Kamel S.M. (2000) "Black residential segregation in suburban Detroit: Empirical testing of the ecological theory", Review of Black Political Economy, 27(3), pp. 103-123. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-000-1005-x 10.1007/s12114-000-1005-x]

Darden J.T.; Kamel S.M. (2000) "Black residential segregation in the city and suburbs of deitroit: Does socioeconomic status matter?", Journal of Urban Affairs, 22(1), pp. 1-13. Blackwell Publishing Inc.. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1111/0735-2166.00036 10.1111/0735-2166.00036]

Zonta M.M. (2006) "Employment opportunities beyond the 'Hood: African American and Hispanic applicants in Atlanta, Los Angeles, New York, and Philadelphia", Jobs and Economic Development in Minority Communities, 119-140. Temple University Press. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/ ]

Boyd R.L. (2008) "Residential segregation by race in cities and the employment of blacks in insurance occupations during the early 20th century", Journal of Socio-Economics, 37(2), pp. 757-766. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2006.12.050 10.1016/j.socec.2006.12.050]

Rothwell J.; Massey D.S. (2009) "The effect of density zoning on racial segregation in U.S. urban areas", Urban Affairs Review, 44(6), pp. 779-806. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1177/1078087409334163 10.1177/1078087409334163]

Dai D. (2010) "Black residential segregation, disparities in spatial access to health care facilities, and late stage breast cancer diagnosis in metropolitan Detroit", Health and Place, 16(5), pp. 1038-1052. Elsevier Ltd. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.06.012 10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.06.012]

Parisi D.; Lichter D.T.; Taquino M.C. (2011) "Multi scale residential segregation: Black exceptionalism and America's changing color line", Social Forces, 89(3), pp. 829-852. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2011.0013 10.1353/sof.2011.0013]

Like T.Z. (2011) "Urban inequality and racial differences in risk for violent victimization", Crime and Delinquency, 57(3), pp. 432-457. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1177/0011128708328442 10.1177/0011128708328442]

Kwate N.O.A.; Loh J.M.; White K.; Saldana N. (2013) "Retail redlining in New York City: Racialized access to day to day retail resources", Journal of Urban Health, 90(4), pp. 632-652. . DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-012-9725-3 10.1007/s11524-012-9725-3]

Iceland J.; Sharp G.; Timberlake J.M. (2013) "Sun Belt Rising: Regional Population Change and the Decline in Black Residential Segregation, 1970 2009", Demography, 50(1), pp. 97-123. Duke University Press. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-012-0136-6 10.1007/s13524-012-0136-6]

Ragusett J.M. (2016) "Black Residential Segregation in the Era of Urban Sprawl", Review of Black Political Economy, 43(3-4), pp. 253-272. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s12114-015-9220-7 10.1007/s12114-015-9220-7]

Brazil N. (2016) "Large Scale Urban Riots and Residential Segregation: A Case Study of the 1960s U.S. Riots", Demography, 53(2), pp. 567-595. Springer Science and Business Media, LLC. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-016-0459-9 10.1007/s13524-016-0459-9]

Darden J.; Malega R.; Stallings R. (2019) "Social and economic consequences of black residential segregation by neighbourhood socioeconomic characteristics: The case of Metropolitan Detroit", Urban Studies, 56(1), pp. 115-130. SAGE Publications Ltd. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1177/0042098018779493 10.1177/0042098018779493]

Massey D.S. (2020) "Still the Linchpin: Segregation and Stratification in the USA", Race and Social Problems, 12(1), pp. 1-12. Springer. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-019-09280-1 10.1007/s12552-019-09280-1]

Reed V.M. (2021) "Civil Rights Legislation and the Housing Status of Black Americans: Evidence From Fair Housing Audits and Segregation Indices", The Housing Status of Black Americans, 29-42. Taylor and Francis. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.4324/9780429339042-3 10.4324/9780429339042-3]

Anderson K.F.; Simburger D. (2022) "Racial/Ethnic Residential Segregation, Poor Self rated Health, and the Moderating Role of Immigration", Race and Social Problems, 14(2), pp. 131-149. Springer. DOI: [htttp://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-021-09345-0 10.1007/s12552-021-09345-0]